Ethical Issues in Organizational Behavior Research Paper

Ethical Issues in Organizational Behavior - Research Paper Example What is even more significant is that the ethical issues are given the cover by the human resources management domains so that the organization continues to grow as a whole. It would put the organization in a quandary if there are gross ethical transgressions and the employees are unwilling to give their honest selves within the undertakings and tasks that they undertake in an organization. The complexity of the debate is present because the organizations cannot let go of this premise at all yet have to tell the employees time and again where they are lacking and what they need to do in order to move ahead positively. Individual influences have a good amount of say within the ethical behavior that is being drafted by the employees in their personal capacities. This means that the employees are either being ethical or completely opposite of the same premise. This has been researched upon within several organizations and the conclusion has been derived from the ethical capacities which have continued to stutter in the wake of interpersonal issues within the employees, the professional communication barriers and a host of other reasons. The individual influences could also be in terms of their misunderstandings due to which they are unable to manifest their ethical best within an organization. As an example, the discussion on the ethical issues centers on the Fuld & Co. which is a competitive intelligence consultant organization that tried to instill the role of the ethics within its employees through different hypothetical scenarios. This was concerned with the comfort levels that existed when presented with the ethical dilemmas linked with the collection of business intelligence information. The survey discerned that nearly one-third organizations neither follow the information collection procedures nor have the audacity to share the same with their employees (Light, 2011). This was indeed a gross mistake on

Occupational Safety and Health Administration Essay Example for Free

Occupational Safety and Health Administration Essay On December 29, 1970 Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act. The purpose of this act as quoted from the act itself is: â€Å"To assure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women; by authorizing enforcement of the standards developed under the Act; by assisting and encouraging the States in their efforts to assure safe and healthful working conditions; by providing for research, information, education, and training in the field of occupational safety and health; and for other purposes.† This act requires employers to provide workplaces that are free from serious recognized hazards and to comply with occupational safety and health standards. The mission of OSHA is to save lives, prevent injuries, and protect the health of America’s workers. Since 1970 OSHA has grown to over 1,130 inspectors in states under federal OSHA jurisdiction. Personnel also includes investigators, engineers, physicians, educators, standards writers and other support personnel spread over more than 200 offices throughout the country (OSHA FAQ) . Since 1970 workplace fatalities have been reduced by half. Even with this decline fourteen Americans are killed on the job every single day of the year. In addition, tens of thousands die every year from workplace disease and over 4.6 million workers are seriously injured on the job (OSHA FAQ). The Department of Labor which conducts the OSHA inspections wants workers to feel safe on the job. Workers have rights that include the right to request an inspection, have a representative present at the inspection, have dangerous substances identified, be informed about exposure to hazards, and have employer violations posted at the worksite (OSH Act). In section 5 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 there is a set of duties that employers and employees are supposed to follow in order to be best assisted by OSHA. This General Duty Clause states: â€Å"(a) Each employer – (1) shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees; (2) shall comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under this Act. (b) Each employee shall comply with occupational safety and health standards and all rules, regulations, and orders issued pursuant to this Act which are applicable to his own actions and conduct.† In section 8 of the OSH Act regarding Inspections and Investigations it states: â€Å"(a) In order to carry out the purposes of this Act, the Secretary, upon appropriate credentials to the owner, operator or agent in charge is authorized- (1) to enter without delay and at reasonable times any factory, plant establishment, construction site or other area, workplace or environment where work is performed by an employee of an employer; and (2) to inspect and investigate during regular working hours and at other reasonable times, and within reasonable limits and in a reasonable manner, any such place of employment and all pertinent conditions, structures, machines, apparatus, devices, equipment, and materials therein, and to question privately any such employer, owner operator, agent or employee.† In Marshall v. Barlows Inc., 436 U.S. 307 (1978), this case involved the constitutionality of a provision in the Occupational Safety and Health Act that permitted inspectors to enter premises without a warrant to inspect for safety hazards and violation of OSHA regulations. The Court held that this provision violated the Fourth Amendment. In The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, commentary is given on this case. One issue in the case was whether a warrant was required. The Court had previously held that no warrant was required to inspect either the premises of a liquor licensee or a licensed gun dealers storeroom. Distinguishing these earlier cases because each concerned a closely regulated industry, the Court in Barlows concluded that requiring warrants in the OSHA context would not â€Å"impose serious burdens on the inspection system or the courts† (p. 316). As for the grounds to obtain an inspection warrant, Barlows follows the rule in Camara v. M unicipal Court (1967) that traditional probable cause is unnecessary if the authorities can show that the inspection conforms to â€Å"reasonable legislative or administrative standards† (p. 538). So, the Court in Barlows concluded that a warrant â€Å"showing that a specific business has been chosen for an OSHA search on the basis of a general administrative plan for the enforcement of the Act derived from neutral sources† (p. 321) would be sufficient, because it would ensure against arbitrary selection of employers. Marshall v. Barlow did little to change the frequency and effectiveness of OSHA inspections. First, OSHA regulations apply to millions of businesses and are enforced by only 1,130 inspectors. Obvious principles of good management would send these inspectors to businesses that justified to have an inspection based on accident history and the number of employee complaints. OSHAs managers had already been using this type of plan prior to the Barlow inspection since Barlow’s Inc. was selected for an inspection based on its accident history. In the â€Å"AEI Journal on Government and Society†, we are given insight on how the Barlow decision protected business, yet still allowed OSHA inspectors to obtain Ex Parte warrants. Barlow left open the question whether â€Å"judicial orders for inspections routinely sought under the secretarys existing regulations when employers refuse entry are the functional equivalent of warrants and thus satisfy the Fourth Amendment (6)†. When OSHAs inspectors conduct criminal investigations with the assistance of a U.S. attorney, they may â€Å"obtain warrants by telephone pursuant to Rule 41(c) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure (7)†. The Barlow decision made the point of saying that if the purpose of an OSHA search is to obtain evidence of crime rather than civil infractions; probable cause that criminal conduct has occurred must be shown to justify a warrant. OSHA Instruction STP 2.18 reiterates that the Supreme Court held that the Fourth Amendment requires a warrant for a nonconsensual OSHA inspection. However, the Court recognized the importance of surprise in the conduct of inspections (as reflected in the Acts general prohibition against advance notice of an inspection), â€Å"in preventing the speedy alteration or disguise of violations so that they escape the inspectors notice†. The instruction goes on to say that: â€Å"The Court explicitly noted the Secretary of Labors authority to promulgate a regulation under which warrants could be sought ex parte; i.e., without the knowledge or participation of the employer. Such warrants might be sought after refusal of an employer to grant entry for an inspection or, in some cases, prior to any attempt to gain entry.† This procedure has helped maximize the effectiveness of criminal enforcement agencies since Barlow did not limit surprise inspections. The only important safeguard that the Barlow decision offered employers was the protection against inspections conducted in bad faith or for purposes of harassment. There are some instances when an inspection requires no warrant. An article titled â€Å"Warrantless OSHA Inspections† by Mark E. Farrell gives an example of how this situation can occur. Farrell summarizes the details in Lakeland Enterprises of Rhinelander, Inc. v. Chao, 402 F.3d 739 (7th Cir. 2005). A sewer and water contractor (Lakeland) in northern Wisconsin was performing excavation work at an industrial park when an OSHA inspector, driving by on the public street, decided to stop and perform an impromptu inspection. After walking past traffic cones that were blocking street traffic from the project site, the inspector observed a Lakeland employee excavating a trench with a backhoe while another employee worked at the bottom of the trench. â€Å"The trench was approximately eighteen feet deep and six feet wide at the bottom and did not contain a ladder or trench box†. When the contractor’s project superintendent began conversing with the OSHA inspector, the worker in the trench climbed up one of the walls to exit, which resulted in loose dirt falling back into the trench. â€Å"The employee performing the excavation work admitted that he knew that the other worker was not supposed to be working in the trench and that he failed to remove him† (Farrell). OSHA ended up issuing three citations and assessed a $49,000 civil penalty against the contractor, including a â€Å"willful violation for permitting an employee to work in an unprotected trench (in violation of 29 CFR  § 1926.652(a)†. During the hearing, the contractor moved to â€Å"suppress the evidence obtained from the inspection† on the basis that the OSHA inspector’s â€Å"warrantless search of the excavation site violated the Fourth Amendment†. The administrative law judge denied the motion, finding that the contractor had no right of privacy at the excavation site because the land was located on a public road. The administrative law judge also concluded that any Fourth Amendment claim was waived because the contractor failed to object to the inspection or ask for a warrant at the site (Farrell). It is important to understand that no advance notice of a worksite inspection needs to be given. Unannounced inspections are an important tool in OSHA’s mission to promote safe and healthful working conditions at all times. OSHA has come a long way since 1970 to help American become a safe place to work especially when compared to some parts of the world. With a good budget and better laws there are fewer injuries every year. OSHA truly is one of the administrative agencies that exist for the bettering of the quality of life for the workers of our country. Works Cited Farrell, Mark E. Warrantless OSHA Inspections Newsletter Article. Lorman Education Services Continuing Education Seminars. Web. 1 Mar. 2011. http://www.lorman.com/newsletters/article.php?article_id=346newsletter_id=73category_id=3. Hall, Kermit L. â€Å"Marshall v. Barlow’s Inc.† The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. 2005. OSH Act, OSHA Standards, Inspections, Citations and Penalties. Occupational Safety and Health Administration Home. OSHA Office of Training and Education, May 1996. Web. 2 Mar. 2011. http://www.osha.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/introsha.html. OSHA and the Fourth Amendment. AEI JOURNAL ON GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY (1978): 6-7. AEI JOURNAL ON GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY. Web. United States of America. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. Print United States of America. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Inspections and Investigations: Obtaining Warrants on an Ex Parte Basis and Prior to Attempting Entry. Bruce Hillenbrand Acting Director, Federal Compliance and State Programs, 26 Feb. 1981. Web. http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=DIRECTIVESp_id=1863. United States of America. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Frequently Asked Questions. Web. 1 Mar. 2011. http://www.osha.gov/OSHA_FAQs.html.

Immanuel Kants Idea of Knowledge

Immanuel Kants Idea of Knowledge Immanuel Kant is responsible for introducing the term â€Å"transcendental† to the philosophical discussion. By doing this it was his goal to reject everything that Hume had to say. His argument proved that subjects like mathematics and philosophy truly existed. One of his main arguments was the idea that gaining knowledge was possible. Without this idea of knowledge there would be no reason for a discussion. Since we know that knowledge is possible we must ask how it got this way. According to Kant, one of the conditions of knowledge is the Transcendental Aesthetic, which is the mind placing sense experience into a space and time sequence. From this we understand that the transcendental argument is an abundance of substances situated in space and time, with a relationship to one another. We cannot gain this knowledge from sense-experience (Hume) or from rational deduction alone (Leibniz), but showing how knowledge exist and how it is possible. Kant makes the claim in the Transcendental Aesthetics that space and time are ‘pure a priori intuitions. To fully understand what this means we must define what an intuition is. According to Kant an intuition is raw data of sensory experience. So basically intuitions are produced in the mind. Kant is saying that space and time are things that are produced in the mind and given before experience. Space is a necessary a priori representation, which underlies all outer intuitions. It does not represent something in itself or any other relationship. Space is only a form of appearance represented outside of the mind. Time, on the other hand, is a necessary representation that underlies all intuitions and therefore is a priori. Since time is only one dimensional there is no way that we could access it quickly. We know that space and time are both a priori because of all of our experiences. Kant also claims that space and time are ‘empirically real but transcendentally ideal. When Kant says that space is ‘empirically real he is not presupposing external objects. There is no way for space to be an empirical concept. We cannot just come up with the idea of space; a representation of space must be presupposed. When we experiences things outside ourselves it is only possible through representation. For space and time to be ‘transcendentally ideal Kant is basically saying that â€Å"they are not to be identified with anything beyond or anything that transcends the bounds of possible experience or the a priori subjective conditions that make such experience possible in the first place.† Before Kant begins to explain the transcendental aesthetic he claims in the introduction that mathematical knowledge is synthetic a priori. This statement is based on Kants Copernican Revelation. According to Kant, time and space taken together are the pure forms of all sensible intuitions. This is our way of creating a priori synthetic propositions. These propositions are limited in how they appear to us but not present within themselves. We have a priori knowledge of synthetic judgements. According to Kant our judgements/statements can either be analytic or synthetic. An analytic judgement would be where the concept of the predicate is part of the concept of the subject. If it is denied then there would be a contradiction. A synthetic judgement, on the other hand, is where the concept of the predicate is not contained in the concept of the subject. So, if we denied it then there would be no contradiction involved. An analytical judgement would be â€Å"all bachelors are unmarried†. The concept of bachelor is defined as being unmarried. In analyzing this word we would say that it is an unmarried male adult. When we analyze concepts the parts come out. Therefore, when broken down our predicate concept of â€Å"unmarried† is shown. The mind is capable of finding this concept without going outside and experiencing it. If we tried to deny this statement there would have to be a contradiction, therefore making it false. An example of a synthetic judgement would be â€Å"the sun will rise tomorrow†. When we say this it is our way of taking two separate and distinct ideas and putting them together. There could be no contradiction in this statement because we can image that something like this could occur. In Section I of the Transcendental Aesthetic, Kant gives four arguments for the conclusion that space is empirically real but transcendentally ideal. As we know space is not an empirical concept. We cannot physically derive the idea of space. The only way that we can receive these outer experiences is through our representation. When it comes to space we cannot represent the absence of space but we can imagine space as being empty. In order to be given any content in our experience we must presuppose space. Knowing that space is not a general concept we can only discuss one space at a time and if we speak of diverse spaces we only mean parts of the same space. The parts cannot decipher the bigger space but only what is contained in it. Since space is seen as only one, the concept of spaces depends on a limit. Concepts containing an unlimited amount of representations cannot be contained within itself. All parts of space are given to us at once. Therefore it is an a priori intuition not a concept. All of the previous information is Kants way of showing that the synthetic a priori knowledge of mathematics is possible. As we know mathematics is a product of reason but is still synthetic. But how can this knowledge be a priori? The concepts of math are seen a priori in pure intuitions. This just means that the intuition is not empirical. If you do not have intuitions then mathematics would not even be a concept. Philosophy, on the other hand, progresses only through concepts. Philosophy uses intuitions to show necessary truths but those truths cannot be a consequence of intuitions. The possibility of math only occurs because it is based on pure intuitions which only occur when concepts are constructed. Like pure intuition, empirical intuition, allows us to broaden our concept of an object by providing us with new predicates. With pure intuitions we get necessary a priori truths. Synthetic a priori knowledge in mathematics is possible only if it refers to objects of the senses. The form of appearances comes from time and space which is assumed by pure intuitions. Doubting that space and time do not belong to the object in themselves would cause us to not have an explanation about a priori intuitions of objects. We have to come to the conclusion that in space and time objects are only appearances entailing that it is the form of appearances that we can represent a priori. Concluding that a synthetic a priori knowledge of mathematics would be possible. What is the Transcendental Deduction? This is the way concepts can relate a priori to objects. Kant says, â€Å"If each representation were completely foreign to every other, standing apart in isolation, no such thing as knowledge would ever arise. For knowledge is [essentially] a whole in which representations stand compared and connected.† Kant lays out a threefold synthesis about experience: a synthesis of apprehension in intuition, a synthesis of reproduction in imagination, and a synthesis of recognition in a concept. We should not divide these steps into one but they should all be intertwined as one. So what we see must occur consecutively. Therefore our idea of the Synthetic Unity of Apperception comes into play. This is where every possible content of experience must be accompanied by â€Å"I think†. Everything in your mental state should be able to be accompanied by â€Å"I think† if not then it will not matter at all. â€Å"I think† is not something that consists in sensibility. It is an act of spontaneity. It precedes all possible experience. The unity of this particular manifold is not given in experience but prior to it. Thinking substances can only perceive what is going on inside as perception goes on at all times. This is where our awareness of a manifold comes into play. We are aware of one thing after another. Each impression is different from one other. We must say that these impressions are mine. Basically accompanying them with the phrase â€Å"I think†. As for the Transcendental Unity of Apperception we are never aware of ourselves as the thinker but just the intuitions. All of our experiences must be subjective to this combination of things. I must actively pull them all together as them being a part of my experience. The only way that I can be aware of this â€Å"I† is if I am able to pull together all of these representations. In this we can see the idea of objective unification. There is a connection between transcendental unity of apperception and objective unification. When we speak of objective unification we believe that there is a right way to put things together. This concept basically comes from our categorical synthesis which involves a priori concepts. With the categorical synthesis it is our way of putting together intuitions in a category. We must be able to make a judgement. For example we must be able to say this is how things seem to me because of pass experiences. By saying this it would be a near judgement. Whereas a judgement would be us just saying this is how things are. To make a judgement is to say this is how things are out there; how they objectively are rather than how they appear subjectively. For a manifold to be complete the sensible intuitions have to be subject to the category. This is how we can have a categorical synthesis. We cannot have sense impression unless I can bring them together under a unified manifold by knowing they are objective rather than subjective. Any intuition that we have must be subject to the category. We could not have an awareness of one event coming before the other unless there is a manifold of â€Å"my†. Appearances are not objects in themselves. They are not just representations; they are separate intuitions therefore having no connection between them. Imagination is what connects the manifold of sensible intuitions. Nature is just appearance. Anything that appears to us must conform to law. We have to complete this synthesis in order to have experiences. It is presupposed that there is an objective to all of my experiences. Without it there would be no way to put them together and I would not be aware of them as experiences. Both the threefold synthesis and a transcendental unity of apperception are necessary to have ordered experience for any sort of theory of experience. 3. Kant defines Idealism as â€Å"the theory which declares the existence of objects in space outside us either to be merely doubtful and indemonstrable or to be false and impossible.† Since I am conscious of my own existence, objects in space must also exist. Having knowledge, the only thing that we are aware of is our representations. These representations are only achievable through an object outside of me not by the representation of that object. Therefore I exist in time because I am capable of perceiving actual things outside of me. I am conscious of my existence in the same frame of time as I am conscious of those objects existing outside of me. When referring to idealism it is believed that our immediate experience is inner experience and from this particular experience we only receive outer objects. It is quite possible that these representations come from within. When considering the representation â€Å"I am† a subject is included. We do not know what that subject is though. So according to circumstances we do not have any experience of that subject. To fully understand the knowledge of the subject we must have intuition. But the only way to receive this inner experience is through our outer experience. To have the existence of outer objects we must be conscious of ourselves. This does not mean that our representation of them involve true existence because they could also be produced by our imagination. The representations of our outer objects come from our perceptions. According to Kant â€Å"all that we have here sought to prove is that inner experience in general is possible only through outer experience in general. Whether this is or that supposed experience be not purely imaginary, must be ascertained from its special determinations, and through it congruence with the criteria of all real experience.† According to Descartes, we really know only what is in our own consciousness. We are instantly and honestly aware of only our own states of mind. What we believe of the whole external world is merely an idea or picture in our minds. Therefore, it is possible to doubt the actuality of the external world as being composed of real objects. â€Å"I think, therefore I am† is the only idea that cannot be doubted. This is because self-consciousness and thinking are the only objects that can be experienced in the real sense. Descartes presented the main problem of philosophical idealism which was an awareness of the difference between the world as a mental picture and that of a system of external objects. Lockes theory, on the other hand, encompasses the mind as the origin for modern conceptions of identity and the self. Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuation of â€Å"consciousness.† He also speculated that the mind was a â€Å"blank slate† or â€Å"tabula rasa†. These two strategies are very different from the above strategies of Kant. At the beginning of early modern philosophy, in Descartes, we seem to see our familiar world slipping away. At the culmination of early modern philosophy, in Kant, however, we get our familiar world back through at a price. In the following essay I will discuss this process, beginning with Descartes, ending with Kant, and discussing two of the four philosophers we have examined this semester. In Meditation One Descartes gives three separate arguments. From these particular arguments one can conclude that we cannot claim to know with certainty anything about the world around us. Everything might seem probable but in reality that does not mean that it lacks doubt. If we can never be certain how can we know anything. This is the main reason for Descartes bring this issue up. Basically his entire argument is based on Scepticism. Scepticism is very important and is seen as an attempt for our knowledge and understanding of the world. It is really hard to doubt that someone really exists but there is no way that one could get rid of the idea of scepticism The one thing that we know is that Descartes does not just randomly doubt everything. He provides very concrete reasons for the things that he doubts. As he sets up this doubt he has to be very rational about it. If he does not then his argument is not going to work. The KK thesis that Descartes uses is to show how these arguments work. The KK thesis follows: if a knows that p, then a knows that a knows that p. basically this means that if I know that there is snow outside then I know that I know that there is snow outside. The problem with this argument is that if we are not sure about our senses then there is no way that we can be sure about the knowledge that we possess. In making this thesis work one must have a strong understanding of what â€Å"knowing† really means. But there is no way that one can actually have this understanding. One must have self-knowledge or basically one must really know himself/herself. Therefore if you do not have that notion of self then you do not possess any knowledge. As we can see the KK thesis works in favour with what Descartes is saying in all of his arguments. The only problem is that he does not believe that his argument about God is that strong. He feels that if there is an Omnipotent God then there is no way that he could ever deceive us. There is no way that he could be all knowing and make us doubt the things that we do. On the other hand there is no way that there could be no God because our senses had to be created by someone. Therefore there must have been an evil demon that has deceived us. But since he doubts everything then he is not mislead into the false believing of a demon. So, in a later meditation he proves that there is a God and that he is not a deceiver. We turn to Liebniz and we continue to see the world slipping away as he discusses the monad. In looking at the things that Liebniz said it is believed that monads (Entelechy) are not physical or mental but biological. Therefore, the ultimate cogs of the world are biological elements or Entelechies. In doing this there is no distinction made between inanimate and animate objects, which would make everything, animate. If these monads are really just biological there is no way that they can make changes in each other. The only way for this to happen is if God caused these changes to happen. The reason that monads cannot bring changes in bodies is because that is not what they were programmed to do. They were created so that compound substances could be made. The biological nature of Monads makes their essential qualities to be apperception and appetition and even motion itself. Their relation is more of a final cause than an efficient cause. This is why he considers final causes as the principle of efficient causes and gives priority to final causes. Therefore, this made it hard for a monad to bring change in a body. As we can see, God is the unifier of the monads but he also brings harmony. Leibniz came to the conclusion, by using metaphysics and the nature of monads, that God was the ultimate monad and the Creator of this world. We are now at a point where nothing is the same. We believed in one thing but now it is completely different. The first problem that Berkeley would have with this objection is the fact that ideas cannot exist if they are not perceived. If we cannot perceive of the idea then there is no way that we can truly conceive of the thing. For example if I do not have the idea of the sky being blue then there is no way that I am going to walk outside, look up, and say the sky is blue. I do not have the concept of blue in the first place. He says that we cannot say what reality is like without using language. You cannot use a word well if you do not know the meaning of that word. When we are describing an idea it is based on what we feel. There is no way that I can say what I mean if I have no conception of the word. According to Berkeley, ideas do not do anything so it cannot cause anything to happen. The mind is active; it is able to perceive of new ideas by imaging. The one thing that the mind cannot do is actually form ideas. It can perceive the ideas but cannot come up with ideas that will resemble the mind when it does this. So, therefore there is no way that we can perceive of any sensible things without knowing what the words mean in the first place. If you do not know what the words mean then you cannot come up with ideas and without the ideas you cannot perceive anything. As we continue we start to see some changes. Berkeley is bring us closer to what Kant has to say. We finally come to Kant and we get our world back through pieces. The way that we do this is through the Kantian price. The Kantian price is how we get our world back through space and time. We have to realize that we would not exist without a world of space and time. Space is not empirical; the idea of space cannot be conceived of. Space is of only one thing. It cannot be talked about in parts because parts are only contained in the overall bigger picture. All space is, is a form of all appearances of the outer sense. As for time it is a little different. Time is not something, which exist of itself. An intuition taking place within is what time is. Time cannot be removed from appearance even though it does not have to actually possess appearances. These appearances can come and go but time cannot be taken away. It is only suitable in conjunction to appearance not for objects preoccupied or taken in general. Time and space are the pure forms of all sensible intuition and so are what make a priori synthetic propositions possible. Therefore, bring back our world through a price. We get a chance to see how Kant breaks down what everyone is saying and shows us how the world is not really slipping away but it is just seen in a different way.

Edwin Blacks War Against the Weak: Eugenics and Americas Campaign to Create a Master Race :: Edwin Black Eugenics Master Race Essays

Edwin Black's War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race To the average American it seems unfathomable that US based research into the "scientific" practice of eugenics could have been the foundation and impetus for Hitler's Nazi genocide and atrocities. In addition, notions of racial superiority and the scientific quest for the development of a pure Aryan nation, both by the United States and foreign countries, particularly Germany, were funded and fueled by monies from such prominent families as the Rockefellers, Carnegies and Harriman's. In his book, War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race, author Edwin Black traces the history of the American eugenics movement, its influence on the rise to power of the Third Reich, and how it was the foundation for the development of scientific racism. Consequently, Black fears that though eugenics in the sense that we recall from the past is gone in name, the future still presents eugenic-like research under the guise of human genetic science, which once again i s supported by corporate funding whose goals are more for monetary gain and globalization, rather than for the benefit of mankind. The origins of eugenic ideology can be traced to the mid-nineteenth century when English philosopher, Herbert Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest." Those strong and "fittest" would naturally rise to the top, for the benefit of society. Spencer, along with other leading scientists like Charles Darwin and Gregor Mendel advocated the principles of the improvement of the human race based on this superiority logic; supporting their findings through the combined applications of science and mathematics. In 1865, statistician Francis J. Galton "postulated that heredity not only transmitted physical features, such as hair color and height, but mental, emotional and creative qualities as well," and so new theories were born. (Page: 15). These characteristics were more than coincidental and Galton set about classifying and categorizing thousands of people based upon his hypothesis that negative hereditary existed, and that bad traits would out weigh the good and as a result, peo ple would spiral biologically downward. Thus the term "eugenics" was utilized as "the study of all agencies under social control which can improve or impair the racial quality of future generations." (Page: 18). Using the principles expounded by Galton and through Mendel's research in laws of recessive and dominant traits discovered in plant breeding, American researchers entered this new scientific field.

Massage Therapy

Annotated Bibliography and Critique: Massage Therapy September 19th, 2012 Introduction The alternative therapy I chose to research was Massage therapy. The Oxford Dictionary of Psychology defines massage therapy as â€Å"manual manipulation of soft tissue to promote physical and mental health and well-being. Forms of massage therapy can be traced back to ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Hindu, and Japanese civilizations† (â€Å"massage therapy†, 2008).I chose to do this topic for my annotated bibliography because I am interested in learning more about the benefits of massage and to understand ways of healing pain and discomfort through touch and manual manipulation. I believe that massage therapy is not only helpful in the relief of pain and discomfort but also helps in the emotional maintenance of romantic relationships. Article One Ho, Y. , Lee, R. , Chow, C. , & Pang, M. (2010). Impact of massage therapy on motor outcomes in very low-birthweight infants: Rand omized controlled pilot study.Pediatricsinternational, 52, 378-385. The purpose of this randomized trial was to â€Å"investigate the efficacy of massage therapy on stable preterm VLBW infants in promoting motor development, weight gain, and earlier discharge from the hospital† (Ho et al. , 2010, p. 378). Ho et al. suggest that â€Å"it is generally accepted that infants at 32 weeks gestational age and beyond may benefit from massage therapy† (Ho et al. , 2010, p. 378). This was a randomized controlled intervention pilot trial that studied infants whose gestational age was between 25 and 34 weeks with VLBW.Two types of massage interventions were performed on separate groups of infants for 15 minutes in duration. One intervention being 5 minutes of massage therapy with tactile stimulation in the first and third phases and physical activity phase in the second phase and the other therapy (sham treatment) consisted of gentle still touch producing no indentation in the ski n. Each treatment was done an hour after feedings. Daily caloric intake was recorded as well as bodyweight before intervention, at 36 weeks PCA, and after intervention.The results of this study were shown to be that out of the 24 infants that were involved, the â€Å"infants with poor initial motor performance had significantly more improvement in motor outcomes and shorter length of hospital stay following massage therapy than sham treatment† (Ho et al. , 2010, p. 381) Article One Critique Strengths of this article were the thorough explanation of the therapies done with the infants. This allows for easy replication of the study should anyone try and implement these types of massage therapies in hospital NICU’s.This article also outlined implications for future research suggesting that a large sample size would be beneficial for another study to have more accurate results. The author’s use and interpretation of the evidence lead to the same conclusion as was gi ven in the conclusion. Appropriate methods to gather evidence was used and measurements were done at appropriate growth stages. I believe that the results of this study were congruent with what the conclusion stated in the end.Shortcomings of this article are stated within the article saying that â€Å"the effect of massage on preterm infants’ motor developmental outcomes thus remains uncertain, and a study with a more rigorous study design is warranted† (Ho et al. , 2010, p. 378). Excluding certain infants from the study I believe was also a short coming in this article. They limited infants that had maternal drug addictions, congenital abnormalities, and genetic disorders. This was a limitation to this study because it didn’t allow for results to show if massage therapy could benefit these types of conditions in newborns.Limiting infants such as ones with congenital abnormalities may have allowed the results to show better growth in the overall group. For futu re studies infants with conditions such as congenital abnormalities or maternal drug addiction could be included as a third subgroup for testing of massage therapy to see if the benefits of this alternative therapy aids in their growth and development. Article Two Munk, N. , Kruger, T. , & Zanjani, F. (2011). Massage therapy usage and reported health in older adults.The Journal of Alternative and Complimentary Medicine, 17(7), 609- 616. A randomized study was done to examine the impact of massage therapy in older adults with persistent pain compared to persistent pain clients who have not sought out the use of alternative therapies such as massage therapy. This article suggests that â€Å"high rates of persistent and acute pain have been reported by users of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) including recipients of massage therapy (MT), with pain being the primary reason some adults utilize CAM treatments† (Munk et al. 2011, p. 609). Participants of this study were 60 – 92years from Lexington, Kentucky either from 500 randomly selected Feyette County voters or from surveys given out at massage therapy clinics. Surveys and questions were dispersed to each participant and answers were recorded. The results of this study were â€Å"mean annual income and years of education were significantly higher for those who utilized MT in the past year compared to those who did not indicate MT usage in the past year† (Munk et al. , 2011, p. 611).Furthermore, â€Å"participants who utilized MT in the past year had significantly higher incomes, more years of education, and greater cumulative CAM usage than those who did not report massage usage† (Munk et al. , 2011, p. 612). Article Two Critique The strengths of this article were that it suggested future studies to look into things such as policy change that would help with older adults being able to afford massage therapy or be covered under their benefits. Another strength of this artic le was that it lists its limitations, allowing future studies to build off of the limitations they had and continue with the study.Shortcomings of this article were that it didn’t talk much about the positives that older adults experience from massage therapy. I would have found it more beneficial to understand how older adults benefited from massage therapy in regards to their persistent pain. Another shortcoming of this article, as stated on page 609, is that â€Å"due to the limited existence of evidence-based studies, the benefits of MT are not well understood for older adults, especially in regards to pain† (Munk et al. , 2011, p. 609).As well, a wider variety of patients could be used to see how different types of people or conditions could benefit from massage therapy. This article was limited to only the Kentucky population rather than a wider variety of people. With this study being centered around a survey and data analysis I feel that surveys could have been sent out worldwide to get a better understanding of massage therapy and its benefits on a wide variety of conditions. More shortcomings were that there was no real measure of pain or how long it lasted for in the participants.This makes me wonder about the authors’ conclusion of massage therapy being â€Å"associated with self-report of less limitation due to physical or emotional issues† (Munk et al. , 2011, p. 614). The last short coming of this article was that there was no actual controlled massage therapy taking place, rather it was just assumed through self reports that massage therapy aided in the management of persistent pain. Article Three Sefton, J. , Yarar, C. , Berry, J. , & Pascoe, D. (2010). Therapeutic massage of the neck and shoulders produces changes in peripheral blood flow when assessed with dynamic infrared thermography.The Journal of Alternative and Complimentary Medicine, 16(7), 723-732. The objective of this repeated-measures crossover experimen tal design study was to â€Å"determine the effect of therapeutic massage on peripheral blood flow (Yarar et al. , 2010, p. 723). It is suggested that â€Å"MT may improve circulation to damaged or painful tissues, and thereby improve the delivery of metabolic fuels and gas in addition to accelerated waste removal†( Yarar et al. , 2010, p. 724). â€Å"Thus, massage treatment may improve tissue function and potentiate tissue repair by removing barriers to healing processes† (Yarar et al. 2010, p. 724). 17 volunteers were chosen for this study. â€Å"Using a blinded, randomized crossover design, each subject completed the control (C), light touch (LT) and massage (MT) conditions on 3 separate days, at least 1 week apart† (Yarar et al. , 2010, p. 724). The participants were then scanned by dynamic infrared thermography (DIRT) and anterior, posterior and lateral thermal images were taken. â€Å"The key finding of this investigation was that the MT condition produc ed significantly higher skin temperatures when compared to the control condition in five zones† (Yarar et al. , 2010, p. 27). â€Å"Importantly, significant changes were found in zones 9 and 13, areas adjacent to the massaged areas that did not receive massage treatment† (Yarar et al. , 2010, p. 727-728). â€Å"These results suggest that a 20-minute MT protocol can increase skin temperature and peripheral blood perfusion to both the areas receiving massage treatment as well as areas adjacent to the treatment† (Yarar et al. , 2010, p. 728). â€Å"The second key finding in this investigation was that the LT condition did not differ significantly from the C condition† (Yarar et al. , 2010, p. 728). Article Three CritiqueThe strengths and shortcomings of this article were that it was, to me, very difficult to read with the abbreviations throughout. There was only one method used for measuring the temperature of the skin following massage treatment after a few different methods were mentioned in the beginning. The strengths were that it outlined the changes in every zone after treatment, making it clear what areas benefited from treatment. Much time was taken into the discussion part to better understand the results that came of this study. The graphs on pages 729 and 730 are a great way of showing readers the different affects each treatment had on the zones.The use of DIRT to measure the surface temperature without touching the skin was beneficial to this study because it does not require direct touch to the skin. This allows for accurate results because contact with the skin could possibly increase temperature readings. However, I think further study into other methods of taking temperature could have been done to have more options and a wider variety of results. Different variety of massage therapies, such as relaxation massage versus deep tissue massage, could bring about different results as well. Perhaps with deep tissue massage ar terial blood flow would be encouraged throughout the body.The final shortcoming of this article I thought to be the small sample size of 17 participants. However, results were rather accurate due to each participant experiencing each of the 3 treatment types. Application to health care I believe these articles are all applicable to health care because each one is related to a type of condition or illness that could benefit from massage therapy. Low birth weight infants are born every day and finding an alternative therapy to helping with growth and development would help in reducing medical costs and helps in shortening hospital stays for the families affected.Aging adults are often affected by persistent pain from ware on their bones and joints. As an alternative of using harsh prescription medications, massage therapy would help with medical costs as well as lessen the complications and undesirable side effects that come with taking pills all the time. And lastly, massage therapy being used to help with peripheral blood flow to areas that may have little to no circulation can help with lessoning the chance of DVTs, decrease medical costs and improve healing time. ConclusionIn conclusion, massage therapy is effective in helping low birth weight babies with gaining weight and having shorter hospital stays as well as improvement in management of persistent pain and increase in peripheral blood flow. More studies could be done in regards to other positive effects that massage therapy has such as, mental and emotional health and well being. The articles reviewed in this annotated bibliography showed that very low-birth weight infants can benefit from massage in regards to promoting motor development and weight gain.Massage therapy in older adults experiencing persistent pain, according to self reported findings, improves limitation due to physical or emotional issues. And therapeutic massage helps with increased surface temperature aiding in peripheral blood flow . References Ho, Y. , Lee, R. , Chow, C. , & Pang, M. (2010). Impact of massage therapy on motor outcomes in very low-birthweight infants: Randomized controlled pilot study. Pediatrics international, 52, 378-385. Massage therapy. (2008). In A. Colman (Ed. ), A Dictionary of Psychology (3rd ed. ). Retrieved from http://library. troyal. ca:2139/view/10. 1093/acref/9780199534067. 001. 0001/acref- 9780199534067-e-9168? rskey=9C7gUq&result=1&q=massage%20therapy Munk, N. , Kruger, T. , & Zanjani, F. (2011). Massage therapy usage and reported health in older adults. The Journal of Alternative and Complimentary Medicine, 17(7), 609-616. Sefton, J. , Yarar, C. , Berry, J. , & Pascoe, D. (2010). Therapeutic massage of the neck and shoulders produces changes in peripheral blood flow when assessed with dynamic infrared thermography. The Journal of Alternative and Complimentary Medicine, 16(7), 723-732.

The Role of Tragic Heroes in Latin American Literature Essays

The Role of Tragic Heroes in Latin American Literature Essays The Role of Tragic Heroes in Latin American Literature Paper The Role of Tragic Heroes in Latin American Literature Paper Essay Topic: Chronicle Of a Death foretold Literature Traditionally, tragic heroes begin as perfectly good characters who suffer a change in fortune from happiness to misery due to a mistaken act, which he performs due to his overwhelming natural flaw. An example of this is excessive pride, which overwhelms the tragic heros conscience, hence leading him to violate or ignore a moral law. The tragic hero evokes our pity because he is not thoroughly evil and his misfortune is greater than he deserves. This essay aims to compare and contrast the characters of Esteban Trueba from The House of the Spirits, and Pedro and Pablo Vicario, from Chronicle of a Death Foretold, and explore to what extent these characters can be classified as heroes in a tragic drama. From our very first impressions of the young Esteban, we are shown an ambitious and intelligent man, whose harsh childhood and tragedy of his fiances death, Rosa the Beautiful, imprints bitterness early on in his life. Trying to escape the burdens of his miserable past, Esteban devotes his life to his business and political careers, determined to be rich and powerful, If there was anything that could alleviate the grief and rage of Rosas loss, it would be by breaking his back working in this ruined land1. However, Esteban owes much of his prosperity to the labor of the peasants at Tres Marias, yet he never treats them with respect and is quick to develop a valid reputation for being a tyrant and a rapist. These tendencies to abusively exercise his superiority over his employees, and his careless fulfillment of self-gratification demonstrates how Estebans bitterness and frustrations embedded in his past transforms him into an egoistic, callous and violent man, entirely consumed by his own self-aggrandizement. Estebans move to Tres Marias appears satiate his voracious appetite only temporarily, for he only ever experiences fleeting moments of satisfaction before his monstrous and accumulating need eventually overwhelms him. For Esteban, marriage, children, prosperity and power acquired at Tres Marias seemed the perfect solution to all his problems, promising happiness and security. Yet Estebans inability to compromise, his violent temper, callousness and above all, his pride, all combine together as his fatal flaw which inevitably leads to his downfall. In the end, Esteban is left a lonely, broken man as his violent temper and unforgiving and uncompromising character eventually isolates him from those he loved the most. In my deluded solitude, I sat waiting for my son in the armchair of my library, my eyes glued to the doorsill, calling to him with my mind, as I used to call for Clara2. In his old age, political victory and material prosperity have little significance now that Esteban has lived long enough to understand that life without love or family is no longer worth living. He is now reduced to a pitiful old man, left entirely alone just as his sister, Ferula, has accurately predicted. You will al ways be alone. Your body and souls will shrivel up and youll die like a dog! 3 Hence as the novel progresses, Esteban undergoes a dynamic change from an empathic and unfortunate boy to, arguably, an evil despot and with each political and business success, Estebans character deteriorates as his fatal flaws increasingly manifest themselves in his obsessive and violent behavior. Throughout the novel, we are shown unforgivable acts of violence and callousness, to the point where one could argue that he becomes vilified and in fact loses the readers empathy entirely. Yet Esteban is so tragic, because without wanting or choosing to, the more Esteban prospers, the more his incontrollable temper and overwhelming pride drives away those he loves the most. This ultimately leads to his gradual moral deterioration and leaves him utterly alone, and as the story reaches its conclusion, we see that events have turned out justly as Esteban is punished by his own grief and solitude as a direct result of his wrong behavior, and in this he becomes redeemed in our eyes for finally understanding his mistakes. For his redemption lies in his regret and penitence, and in his relinquishment of power and acknowledgement of his failure, He was not crying because he had lost power. He was crying for his country4, thus confirming his role as a tragic hero. In the Columbian town where the narrative of Chronicle of a Death Foretold unfolds, honor is taken with utmost severity, and all the characters in the novel are seen to be strongly influenced by this ultimate ideal, and it is the preservation of this ideal that becomes directly accountable for the murder of Santiago Nasar. For the revelation of their sisters soiled virginity causes dishonor within the family and in order to clear Angelas name and restore the family honor, Pedro and Pablo Vicario take upon them the duty of killing their friend, Santiago, the alleged perpetrator of Angelas virginity. Being trapped in a brutal, repressive and patriarchal society, the twins feel the need to assert their masculinity by displaying their attempts to restore family honor. The brothers were brought up to be men5, and Pablo Vicarios fiance claimed at a later stage during the novel that had he not taken the responsibility to restore family pride, she would not have considered him man enough to marry. However, it becomes apparent that the twins are very reluctant to go through with this act of murder, and by announcing their plans of restoring family honor to the community at large they secretly hope that someone will prevent them from actualizing these plans. Yet very few characters in the novel ever question the twins murder threats for the sake of family honor, due to the significance paid to this fundamental cultural ideal. Thus the community is reduced to passive bystanders, aware of the fatal fate awaiting Santiago, and leaving the twins no choice but to inevitably fulfill their threat. Hence one can question the justice of condemning Pablo and Pedro Vicario of being actual murderers. For despite the brutality of their crime, the real murderer of Santiago Nasar appears to be the community itself for its old-fashioned ideals which surpass morality and the value of life. No evidence is ever found concerning the identity of Angelas perpetrator, and as the novels ambiguity gives reason for the reader to doubt the guilt of Santiago, it seems even more unfair that Santiagos murder should be accepted so naturally and unquestionably. Instead it seems correct to establish the twins as victims of their own time and culture, where the weight of cultural norms and social expectations forced them into a situation they did not want, and in fact tried to avoid. It is ultimately these fatal character flaws their weakness of independent character and inability to stand up for their moral virtues against cultural expectations that makes them candidates for the title of tragic hero. Hence in conclusion, one can establish that both Esteban and the Vicario twins are projected, to different extents, as tragic heroes in their respective novels. Esteban, for his malevolent temper and unyielding pride which ultimate estranges him from those he cherishes the most, leaving him a lonely, broken man to suffer and repent in his old age, and the Vicario twins, who had been brought up to be men which, in all its context, included asserting their masculinity by preserving family honor at any cost even by murdering their friend, thus rendering them victims of their own time and culture. However, tragic as the Vicario twins are ndeed, they fade in comparison to Estebans suitability as a candidate for the title of tragic hero, as the twins tragic flaw lie only in their lack of standing up to cultural expectations, and although they may be victimized in themselves, no event arises to redeem them in the readers eyes. For the Various twins, albeit playing an essential role in a tragedy, cannot entirely be reconciled at tragic heroes as they lack the overwhelming personal character flaw and single obsessive drive to fulfill their ambitions , as seen in they way they secretly actually wish to be prevented from carrying out the murder. Esteban, on the other hand, shows true traits of the traditional tragic hero as his character undergoes dynamic transformations from a pitiful boy struggling for survival through a harsh childhood, to a steady deterioration in morality as his fatal character flaws become ever more salient, and finally to a state of realization and acknowledgement of his mistakes and bad actions, as he realizes that his obsession for self-aggrandizement, his violent temper and his unyielding pride comes back to haunt and overwhelm him. And it is in his last days as a withered and shriveled old man that he is redeemed in our eyes as he repents for his mistakes, and comes to terms with his losses, as well as his attempts to reconcile with his daughter and past, that ultimately mark him as the tragic hero of Allendes The House of the Spirits.